Egyptian pyramids

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

The Pyramids of Egypt are among the largest structures ever built [1] and constitute one of the most potent and enduring symbols of Ancient Egyptian civilization. Most were built during the Old and Middle Kingdom periods.[2]
Contents


* 1 Historic development
* 2 Pyramid symbolism
* 3 Number and location of pyramids
o 3.1 Abu Rawash
o 3.2 Giza
o 3.3 Zawyet el-Aryan
o 3.4 Abu Sir
o 3.5 Saqqara
o 3.6 Dahshur
o 3.7 Mazghuna
o 3.8 Lisht
o 3.9 Meidum
o 3.10 Hawara
o 3.11 el-Lahun
o 3.12 Construction dates
* 4 See also
* 5 Notes & references
o 5.1 References
* 6 Further reading
o 6.1 External links

By the time of the early dynastic period of Egyptian history, those with sufficient means were buried in bench-like structures known as mastabas.

The first historically documented Egyptian pyramid is attributed to the architect Imhotep, who planned what Egyptologists believe to be a tomb for the pharaoh Djozer. Imhotep may have been the first to conceive the notion of stacking mastabas on top of each other — creating an edifice composed of a number of "steps" that decreased in size towards its apex. The result was the Step Pyramid of Djozer — which was designed to serve as a gigantic stairway by which the soul of the deceased pharaoh could ascend to the heavens. Such was the importance of Imhotep's achievement that he was deified by later Egyptians.

The most prolific pyramid-building phase coincided with the greatest degree of absolutist pharaonic rule. It was during this time that the most famous pyramids, those near Giza, were built. Over time, as authority became less centralized, the ability and willingness to harness the resources required for construction on a massive scale decreased, and later pyramids were smaller, less well-built and often hastily constructed.

Long after the end of Egypt's own pyramid-building period, a burst of pyramid-building occurred in what is present-day Sudan, after much of Egypt came under the rule of the Kings of Napata. While Napatan rule was brief and ceased in 661 BCE, the Egyptian influence made an indelible impression, and during the later Sudanese Kingdom of Meroe (approximately in the period between 300 BCE–300 CE) this flowered into a full-blown pyramid-building revival, which saw more than two hundred indigenous, but Egyptian-inspired royal pyramid-tombs constructed in the vicinity of the kingdom's capital city.


Pyramid symbolism

The shape of Egyptian pyramids is thought to represent the primordial mound from which the Egyptians believed the earth was created. The shape is also thought to be representative of the descending rays of the sun, and most pyramids were faced with polished, highly reflective white limestone, in order to give them a brilliant appearance when viewed from a distance. Pyramids were often also named in ways that referred to solar luminescence. For example, the formal name of the Bent Pyramid at Dahshur was The Southern Shining Pyramid, and that of Senwosret at el-Lahun was Senwosret is Shining.

While it is generally agreed that pyramids were burial monuments, there is continued disagreement on the particular theological principles that might have given rise to them. One theory is that they were designed as a type of "resurrection machine"

The Egyptians believed the dark area of the night sky around which the stars appear to revolve was the physical gateway into the heavens. One of the narrow shafts that extends from the main burial chamber through the entire body of the Great Pyramid points directly towards the center of this part of the sky. This suggests the pyramid may have been designed to serve as a means to magically launch the deceased pharaoh's soul directly into the abode of the gods.

All Egyptian pyramids were built on the west bank of the Nile, which as the site of the setting sun was associated with the realm of the dead in Egyptian mythology.[7]


Number and location of pyramids

The number of pyramid structures in Egypt today is reported by most sources as being between 81 and 112[citation needed], with a majority favouring the higher number. In 1842 Karl Richard Lepsius made a list of pyramids, in which he counted 67. Pyramid 29 that Lepsius called the "Headless Pyramid" remained lost until being found in an archaeological dig in 2008.[8] A great many more Pyramids have since been discovered.

The imprecise nature of the count is related to the fact that as many smaller pyramids are in a poor state of preservation and appear as little more than mounds of rubble, they are only now being properly identified and studied by archaeologists. Most are grouped in a number of pyramid fields, the most important of which are listed geographically, from north to south, below.


Abu Rawash

Abu Rawash is the site of Egypt's most northerly pyramid (other than the ruins of Lepsius pyramid number one)[2]— the mostly ruined Pyramid of Djedefre, son and successor of Khufu. Originally it was thought that this pyramid had never been completed, but the current archaeological consensus is that not only was it completed, but that it was originally about the same size as the Pyramid of Menkaure, which would have made it among the half-dozen or so largest pyramids in Egypt.

Its location adjacent to a major crossroads made it an easy source of stone. Quarrying — which began in Roman times — has left little apart from a few courses of stone superimposed upon the natural hillock that formed part of the pyramid's core. A small adjacent satellite pyramid is in a better state of preservation.


Giza

Giza is the location of the Pyramid of Khufu (also known as the "Great Pyramid" and the "Pyramid of Cheops"); the somewhat smaller Pyramid of Khafre (or Kephren); the relatively modest-sized Pyramid of Menkaure (or Mykerinus), along with a number of smaller satellite edifices known as "Queen's pyramids"; and the Great Sphinx.

Of the three, only Khafre's pyramid retains part of its original polished limestone casing, near its apex. This pyramid appears larger than the adjacent Khufu pyramid by virtue of its more elevated location, and the steeper angle of inclination of its construction — it is, in fact, smaller in both height and volume.

The Giza Necropolis has been a popular tourist destination since antiquity, and was popularized in Hellenistic times when the Great Pyramid was listed by Antipater of Sidon as one of the Seven Wonders of the World. Today it is the only one of those wonders still in existence.


Zawyet el-Aryan

This site, halfway between Giza and Abu Sir, is the location for two unfinished Old Kingdom pyramids. The northern structure's owner is believed to be the Pharaoh Nebka, whilst the southern structure is attributed to the Third Dynasty Pharaoh Khaba, also known as Hudjefa, successor to Sekhemkhet. Khaba's four-year tenure as pharaoh more than likely explains the similar premature truncation of his step pyramid. Today it is approximately twenty meters in height; had it been completed it is likely to have exceeded 40.


Abu Sir

There are a total of seven pyramids at this site, which served as the main royal necropolis during the Fifth Dynasty. The quality of construction of the Abu Sir pyramids is inferior to those of the Fourth Dynasty — perhaps signaling a decrease in royal power or a less vibrant economy. They are smaller than their predecessors, and are built of low-quality local limestone.

The three major pyramids are those of Niuserre (which is also the most intact), Neferirkare Kakai and Sahure. The site is also home to the incomplete Pyramid of Neferefre. All of the major pyramids at Abu Sir were built as step pyramids, although the largest of them — the Pyramid of Neferirkare Kakai — is believed to have originally been built as a step pyramid some 70 metres in height and then later transformed into a "true" pyramid by having its steps filled in with loose masonry.


Saqqara

Major pyramids located here include the Step Pyramid of Djozer — generally identified as the world's oldest substantial monumental structure to be built of finished stone — the Pyramid of Merykare, the Pyramid of Userkaf and the Pyramid of Teti. Also at Saqqara is the Pyramid of Unas, which retains a pyramid causeway that is one of the best-preserved in Egypt. This pyramid was also the subject of one of the earliest known restoration attempts, conducted by a son of Ramesses II. Saqqara is also the location of the incomplete step pyramid of Djozer's successor Sekhemkhet, known as the Buried Pyramid. Archaeologists believe that had this pyramid been completed it would have been larger than Djozer's.

South of the main pyramid field at Saqqara is a second collection of later, smaller pyramids, including those of Pepi I, Isesi, Merenre, Ibi, Pepi II and Shepseskaf. Most of these are in a poor state of preservation.


Dahshur

This area is arguably the most important pyramid field in Egypt outside Giza and Saqqara, although until 1996 the site was inaccessible due to its location within a military base, and hence was virtually unknown outside archaeological circles.

The southern Pyramid of Sneferu, commonly known as the Bent Pyramid is believed to be the first (or by some accounts, second) attempt at creating a pyramid with smooth sides. In this it was only a partial — but nonetheless visually arresting — success; it remains the only Egyptian pyramid to retain a significant proportion of its original limestone casing, and serves as the best example of the luminous appearance common to all pyramids in their original state. The northern, or Red Pyramid built at the same location by Sneferu was later successfully completed as the world's first true smooth-sided pyramid. Despite its relative obscurity, the Red Pyramid is actually the third largest pyramid in Egypt — after the pyramids of Khufu and Khafre at Giza. Also at Dahshur is the pyramid known as the Black Pyramid of Amenemhet III.


Mazghuna

Located to the south of Dahshur, this area was used in the First Intermediate Period by several kings who constructed their pyramids out of mudbrick. Today these structures are obscure and unimpressive.


Lisht

Two major pyramids are known to have been built at Lisht — those of Amenemhat I and his son, Senusret I. The latter is surrounded by the ruins of ten smaller subsidiary pyramids. One of these subsidiary pyramids is known to be that of Amenemhat's cousin, Khaba II.[9] The site which is in the vicinity of the oasis of Fayyum, midway between Dahshur and Meidum, and about 100 kilometres south of Cairo, is believed to be in the vicinity of the ancient city of Itjtawy (the precise location of which remains unknown), which served as the capital of Egypt during the 12th Dynasty.


Meidum

The pyramid at Meidum is one of three constructed during the reign of Sneferu, and is believed by some to have been started by that pharaoh's father and predecessor, Huni. However, this is not very likely, as his name does not appear on the site. Some archaeologists also suggest that the Meidum pyramid may have been the first unsuccessful attempt at the construction of a "true" or smooth-sided pyramid.

The pyramid suffered a catastrophic collapse in antiquity, and today only the central parts of its stepped inner core remain standing, giving it an odd tower-like appearance that is unique among Egyptian pyramids. The hill that the pyramid sits atop is not a natural landscape feature — it is the small mountain of debris created when the lower courses and outer casing of the pyramid gave way.


Hawara

Amenemhet III was the last powerful ruler of the 12th Dynasty, and the pyramid he built at Hawarra, near Faiyum, is believed to post-date the so-called "Black Pyramid" built by the same ruler at Dahshur. It is the Hawarra pyramid that is believed to have been Amenemhet's final resting place.


el-Lahun

The pyramid of Senusret II at el-Lahun is the southernmost royal-tomb pyramid structure in Egypt. Its builders reduced the amount of work necessary to construct it by ingeniously using as its foundation and core a 12-meter-high natural limestone hill.

Egyptian Mythology - list of characters

* Aaru: Abode of the blessed dead.
* Amen (Amon, Ammdn): One of chief Theban deities; united with sun god under form of Amen-Ra; husband of Mut.
* Amenti: Region of dead where souls were judged by Osiris.
* Anubis: Guide of souls to Amenti; son of Osiris; jackal-headed.
* Apis: Sacred bull, an embodiment of Ptah; identified with Osiris as Osiris-Apis or Serapis.
* Geb (Keb, Seb): Earth god; father of Osiris; represented with goose on head.
* Hathor (Athor): Goddess of love and mirth; cow-headed.
* Horus: God of day; son of Osiris and Isis; hawk-headed.
* Isis: Goddess of motherhood and fertility; sister and wife of Osiris.
* Khepera: God of morning sun.
* Khnemu (Khnum, Chnuphis, Chnemu, Chnum): Ram-headed god.
* Khonsu (Khensu, Khuns): Son of Amen and Mut.
* Mentu (Ment): Solar deity, sometimes considered god of war; falcon-headed.
* Min (Khem, Chem): Principle of physical life.
* Mut (Maut): Wife of Amen.
* Nephthys: Goddess of the dead; sister and wife of Set.
* Nu: Chaos from which world was created, personified as a god.
* Nut: Goddess of heavens; consort of Geb.
* Osiris: God of underworld and judge of dead; son of Geb and Nut; brother and husband of Isis.
* Ptah (Phtha): Chief deity of Memphis.
* Ra: God of the Sun, the supreme god; son of Nut; Pharaohs claimed descent from him; represented as lion, cat, or falcon.
* Serapis: God uniting attributes of Osiris and Apis.
* Set (Seth): God of darkness or evil; brother and enemy of Osiris; brother and husband of Nephthys.
* Shu: Solar deity; son of Ra and Hathor.
* Tem (Atmu, Atum, Tum): Solar deity.
* Thoth (Dhouti): God of wisdom and magic; scribe of gods; ibis-headed.

Monsters in Greek Mythology

Argus

Argus may have had as many as one hundred eyes, which were located all over his body. Hera employed him as a guard. He was killed by Hermes. Afterward, Hera put Argus's eyes in the tail of the peacock, her favorite bird. (as seen in the picture<<)

Cerberus
Cerberus was a huge and powerful three-headed dog. He was owned by Hades, god of the dead, who used the fearsome hound to guard the entrance to the underworld. In his final labor, Hercules went to the underworld and kidnapped Cerberus.

Cyclopes
Each of the Cyclopes was gigantic and had a single eye in the middle of its forehead. The Cyclopes made lightning and thunderbolts for Zeus to use. The brutal Polyphemus, a Cyclops and a son of Poseidon, lived on an island, where he was blinded by Odysseus.

Gorgons
The Gorgons were horrifyingly ugly monsters who lived at the edge of the world. Their hair was made of serpents, and one look from a Gorgon's eyes would turn a man to stone. Perseus killed the Gorgon Medusa by beheading her while looking only at her reflection.


Hydra
The Hydra was a massive and poisonous serpent with nine heads. Every time one head was injured, another two grew in its place. Hercules sought out the monster in its dark marsh and succeeded in destroying it.

Minotaur
The Minotaur was a man-eating monster with the head of a bull. King Minos kept it hidden in a labyrinth (a maze) in Knossos, on the island of Crete, where he used it to frighten his enemies. Theseus killed the Minotaur.


Scylla and Charybdis
The powerful monsters Scylla and Charybdis lived together in a sea cave. Scylla had many fierce dog heads and ate sailors alive; Charybdis created whirlpools by sucking in and spitting out seawater. Both Jason and Odysseus safely traveled by these monsters.

Sirens
The Sirens were giant, winged creatures with the heads of women. They lived on rocks on the sea, where their beautiful singing lured sailors to shipwreck. Odysseus filled his sailors' ears with wax so that they might sail safely past the Sirens.

The Twelve Labors of Hercules

Hercules performed twelve labors given him by King Eurystheus of Tiryns. For twelve years, he traveled all over to complete these incredible tasks. NOTE: Because different ancient poets gave their own accounts of Hercules's labors, some details may vary.
One: Kill the Nemean Lion

This monster of a lion had a hide was so tough that no arrow could pierce it. Hercules stunned the beast with his olive-wood club and then strangled it with his bare hands. It is said that he skinned the lion, using the lion's sharp claws, and ever after wore its hide.
Two: Kill the Lernean Hydra

The evil, snakelike Hydra had nine heads. If one got hurt, two would grow in its place. But Hercules quickly sliced off the heads, while his charioteer, Iolaus, sealed the wounds with a torch. Hercules made his arrows poisonous by dipping them in the Hydra's blood.
Three: Capture the Cerynian Hind

The goddess Artemis loved and protected this stubborn little deer, which had gold horns. Hercules found it a challenge to capture the delicate hind without hurting it (and making Artemis angry). After following the hind for an entire year, he safely carried it away.
Four: Capture the Erymanthian Boar

The people of Mount Erymanthus lived in fear of this deadly animal. Hercules chased the wild boar up the mountain and into a snowdrift. He then took it in a net and brought it to King Eurystheus, who was so frightened of the beast that he hid in a huge bronze jar.
Five: Clean the Augean Stables

Thousands of cows lived in these stables belonging to King Augeas. They had not been cleaned in 30 years, but Hercules was told to clean them completely in a single day. To do so he made two rivers bend so that they flowed into the stables, sweeping out the filth.
Six: Kill the Stymphalian Birds

These murderous birds lived around Lake Stymphalos. Their claws and beaks were sharp as metal and their feathers flew like darts. Hercules scared them out of their nests with a rattle and then killed them with the poison arrows he had made from the Hydra's blood.
Seven: Capture the Cretan Bull

This savage bull, kept by King Minos of Crete, was said to be insane and breathe fire. Hercules wrestled the mad beast to the ground and brought it back to King Eurystheus. Unfortunately, the king set it free, and it roamed Greece, causing terror wherever it went.
Eight: Capture the Horses of Diomedes

King Diomedes, leader of the Bistones, fed his bloodthirsty horses on human flesh. Hercules and his men fought and killed King Diomedes and fed the king to his horses. This made the horses tame, so that Hercules was able to lead them to King Eurystheus.
Nine: Take the Girdle of the Amazon Queen Hippolyte

Hercules went to the land of the Amazons, where the queen welcomed him and agreed to give him her girdle for Eurystheus's daughter. But Hera spread the rumor that Hercules came as an enemy. In the end he had to conquer the Amazons and steal the golden belt.
Ten: Capture the Cattle of Geryon

Geryon, a winged monster with three human bodies, had a herd of beautiful red cattle. He guarded his prized herd with the help of a giant and a vicious two-headed dog. Hercules killed Geryon, the giant, and the dog and brought the cattle to King Eurystheus.
Eleven: Take the Golden Apples of the Hesperides

The Hesperides were nymphs. In their garden grew golden apples protected by Ladon, a dragon with a hundred heads. Hercules struck a bargain with Atlas, who held up the earth. Hercules shouldered the earth while Atlas, the nymphs' father, fetched the apples.
Twelve: Capture Cerberus

Hercules was ordered to capture Cerberus, the three-headed guard dog of the underworld, without using weapons. Hercules wrestled down the dog's wild heads, and it agreed to go with him to King Eurystheus. Cerberus was soon returned unharmed to the underworld.

Greek and Roman Mythology - list of characters

Most of the Greek deities were adopted by the Romans, although in many cases there was a change of name. In the list below, information is given under the Greek name; the name in parentheses is the Roman equivalent. However, all Latin names are listed with cross-references to the Greek ones. In addition, there are several deities that are exclusively Roman. Bold words within entries indicate cross references.

* Achelous: River god; son of Oceanus and Tethys and said to be the father of the Sirens.
* Acheron: One of several Rivers of Underworld.
* Achilles: Greek warrior; slew Hector at Troy; slain by Paris, who wounded him in his vulnerable heel.
* Actaeon: Hunter; surprised Artemis bathing; changed by her to stag; and killed by his dogs.
* Admetus: King of Thessaly; his wife, Alcestis, offered to die in his place.
* Adonis: Beautiful youth loved by Aphrodite.
* Aeacus: One of three judges of dead in Hades; son of Zeus.
* Aeëtes: King of Colchis; father of Medea; keeper of Golden Fleece.
* Aegeus: Father of Theseus; believing Theseus killed in Crete, he drowned himself; Aegean Sea named for him.
* Aegisthus: Son of Thyestes; slew Atreus; with Clytemnestra, his paramour, slew Agamemnon; slain by Orestes.
* Aegyptus: Brother of Danaus; his sons, except Lynceus, slain by Danaides.
* Aeneas: Trojan; son of Anchises and Aphrodite; after fall of Troy, led his followers eventually to Italy; loved and deserted Dido.
* Aeolus: One of several Winds.
* Aesculapius: See Asclepius.
* Aeson: King of Ioclus; father of Jason; overthrown by his brother Pelias; restored to youth by Medea.
* Aether: Personification of sky.
* Aethra: Mother of Theseus.
* Agamemnon: King of Mycenae; son of Atreus; brother of Menelaus; leader of Greeks against Troy; slain on his return home by Clytemnestra and Aegisthus.
* Aglaia: One of several Graces.
* Ajax: Greek warrior; killed himself at Troy because Achilles's armor was awarded to Odysseus.
* Alcestis: Wife of Admetus; offered to die in his place but saved from death by Hercules.
* Alcmene: Wife of Amphitryon; mother by Zeus of Hercules.
* Alcyone: One of several Pleiades.
* Alecto: One of several Furies.
* Alectryon: Youth changed by Ares into cock.
* Althaea: Wife of Oeneus; mother of Meleager.
* Amazons: Female warriors in Asia Minor; supported Troy against Greeks.
* Amor: See Eros.
* Amphion: Musician; husband of Niobe; charmed stones to build fortifications for Thebes.
* Amphitrite: Sea goddess; wife of Poseidon.
* Amphitryon: Husband of Alcmene.
* Anchises: Father of Aeneas.
* Ancile: Sacred shield that fell from heavens; palladium of Rome.
* Andraemon: Husband of Dryope.
* Andromache: Wife of Hector.
* Andromeda: Daughter of Cepheus; chained to cliff for monster to devour; rescued by Perseus.
* Anteia: Wife of Proetus; tried to induce Bellerophon to elope with her.
* Anteros: God who avenged unrequited love.
* Antigone: Daughter of Oedipus; accompanied him to Colonus; performed burial rite for Polynices and hanged herself.
* Antinoüs: Leader of suitors of Penelope; slain by Odysseus.
* Aphrodite (Venus): Goddess of love and beauty; daughter of Zeus and Dione; mother of Eros.
* Apollo: God of beauty, poetry, music; later identified with Helios as Phoebus Apollo; son of Zeus and Leto.
* Aquilo: One of several Winds.
* Arachne: Maiden who challenged Athena to weaving contest; changed to spider.
* Ares (Mars): God of war; son of Zeus and Hera.
* Argo: Ship in which Jason and followers sailed to Colchis for Golden Fleece.
* Argus: Monster with hundred eyes; slain by Hermes; his eyes placed by Hera into peacock's tail.
* Ariadne: Daughter of Minos; aided Theseus in slaying Minotaur; deserted by him on island of Naxos and married to Dionysus.
* Arion: Musician; thrown overboard by pirates but saved by dolphin.
* Artemis (Diana): Goddess of moon; huntress; twin sister of Apollo.
* Asclepius (Aesculapius): Mortal son of Apollo; slain by Zeus for raising dead; later deified as god of medicine. Also known as Asklepios.
* Astarte: Phoenician goddess of love; variously identified with Aphrodite, Selene, and Artemis.
* Asterope: See Sterope.
* Astraea: Goddess of Justice; daughter of Zeus and Themis.
* Atalanta: Princess who challenged her suitors to a foot race; Hippomenes won race and married her.
* Athena (Minerva): Goddess of wisdom; known poetically as Pallas Athene; sprang fully armed from head of Zeus.
* Atlas: Titan; held world on his shoulders as punishment for warring against Zeus; son of Iapetus.
* Atreus: King of Mycenae; father of Menelaus and Agamemnon; brother of Thyestes, three of whose sons he slew and served to him at banquet; slain by Aegisthus.
* Atropos: One of several Fates.
* Aurora: See Eos.
* Auster: One of several Winds.
* Avernus: Infernal regions; name derived from small vaporous lake near Vesuvius which was fabled to kill birds and vegetation.
* Bacchus: See Dionysus.
* Bellerophon: Corinthian hero; killed Chimera with aid of Pegasus; tried to reach Olympus on Pegasus and was thrown to his death.
* Bellona: Roman goddess of war.
* Boreas: One of several Winds.
* Briareus: Monster of hundred hands; son of Uranus and Gaea.
* Briseis: Captive maiden given to Achilles; taken by Agamemnon in exchange for loss of Chryseis, which caused Achilles to cease fighting, until death of Patroclus.
* Cadmus: Brother of Europa; planter of dragon seeds from which first Thebans sprang.
* Calliope: One of several Muses.
* Calypso: Sea nymph; kept Odysseus on her island Ogygia for seven years.
* Cassandra: Daughter of Priam; prophetess who was never believed; slain with Agamemnon.
* Castor: One of Dioscuri.
* Celaeno: One of several Pleiades.
* Centaurs: Beings half man and half horse; lived in mountains of Thessaly.
* Cephalus: Hunter; accidentally killed his wife Procris with his spear.
* Cepheus: King of Ethiopia; father of Andromeda.
* Cerberus: Three-headed dog guarding entrance to Hades.
* Ceres: See Demeter.
* Chaos: Formless void; personified as first of gods.
* Charon: Boatman on Styx who carried souls of dead to Hades; son of Erebus.
* Charybdis: Female monster; personification of whirlpool.
* Chimera: Female monster with head of lion, body of goat, tail of serpent; killed by Bellerophon.
* Chiron: Most famous of centaurs.
* Chronos: Personification of time.
* Chryseis: Captive maiden given to Agamemnon; his refusal to accept ransom from her father Chryses caused Apollo to send plague on Greeks besieging Troy.
* Circe: Sorceress; daughter of Helios; changed Odysseus's men into swine.
* Clio: One of several Muses.
* Clotho: One of several Fates.
* Clytemnestra: Wife of Agamemnon, whom she slew with aid of her paramour, Aegisthus; slain by her son Orestes.
* Cocytus: One of several Rivers of Underworld.
* Creon: Father of Jocasta; forbade burial of Polynices; ordered burial alive of Antigone.
* Creüsa: Princess of Corinth, for whom Jason deserted Medea; slain by Medea, who sent her poisoned robe; also known as Glaüke.
* Creusa: Wife of Aeneas; died fleeing Troy.
* Cronus (Saturn): Titan; god of harvests; son of Uranus and Gaea; dethroned by his son Zeus.
* Cupid: See Eros.
* Cybele: Anatolian nature goddess; adopted by Greeks and identified with Rhea.
* Cyclopes: Race of one-eyed giants (singular: Cyclops).
* Daedalus: Athenian artificer; father of Icarus; builder of Labyrinth in Crete; devised wings attached with wax for him and Icarus to escape Crete.
* Danae: Princess of Argos; mother of Perseus by Zeus, who appeared to her in form of golden shower.
* Danaïdes: Daughters of Danaüs; at his command, all except Hypermnestra slew their husbands, the sons of Aegyptus.
* Danaüs: Brother of Aegyptus; father of Danaïdes; slain by Lynceus.
* Daphne: Nymph; pursued by Apollo; changed to laurel tree.
* Decuma: One of several Fates.
* Deino: One of several Graeae.
* Demeter (Ceres): Goddess of agriculture; mother of Persephone.
* Diana: See Artemis.
* Dido: Founder and queen of Carthage; stabbed herself when deserted by Aeneas.
* Diomedes: Greek hero; with Odysseus, entered Troy and carried off Palladium, sacred statue of Athena.
* Diomedes: Owner of man-eating horses, which Hercules, as ninth labor, carried off.
* Dione: Titan goddess; mother by Zeus of Aphrodite.
* Dionysus (Bacchus): God of wine; son of Zeus and Semele.
* Dioscuri: Twins Castor and Pollux; sons of Leda by Zeus.
* Dis: See Pluto, Hades.
* Dryads: Wood nymphs.
* Dryope: Maiden changed to Hamadryad.
* Echo: Nymph who fell hopelessly in love with Narcissus; faded away except for her voice.
* Electra: Daughter of Agamemnon and Clytemnestra; sister of Orestes; urged Orestes to slay Clytemnestra and Aegisthus.
* Electra: One of several Pleiades.
* Elysium: Abode of blessed dead.
* Endymion: Mortal loved by Selene.
* Enyo: One of several Graeae.
* Eos (Aurora): Goddess of dawn.
* Epimetheus: Brother of Prometheus; husband of Pandora.
* Erato: One of several Muses.
* Erebus: Spirit of darkness; son of Chaos.
* Erinyes: One of several Furies.
* Eris: Goddess of discord.
* Eros (Amor or Cupid): God of love; son of Aphrodite.
* Eteocles: Son of Oedipus, whom he succeeded to rule alternately with Polynices; refused to give up throne at end of year; he and Polynices slew each other.
* Eumenides: One of several Furies.
* Euphrosyne: One of several Graces.
* Europa: Mortal loved by Zeus, who, in form of white bull, carried her off to Crete.
* Eurus: One of several Winds.
* Euryale: One of several Gorgons.
* Eurydice: Nymph; wife of Orpheus.
* Eurystheus: King of Argos; imposed twelve labors on Hercules.
* Euterpe: One of several Muses.
* Fates: Goddesses of destiny; Clotho (Spinner of thread of life), Lachesis (Determiner of length), and Atropos (Cutter of thread); also called Moirae. Identified by Romans with their goddesses of fate; Nona, Decuma, and Morta; called Parcae.
* Fauns: Roman deities of woods and groves.
* Faunus: See Pan.
* Favonius: One of several Winds.
* Flora: Roman goddess of flowers.
* Fortuna: Roman goddess of fortune.
* Furies: Avenging spirits; Alecto, Megaera, and Tisiphone; known also as Erinyes or Eumenides.
* Gaea: Goddess of earth; daughter of Chaos; mother of Titans; known also as Ge, Gea, Gaia, etc.
* Galatea: Statue of maiden carved from ivory by Pygmalion; given life by Aphrodite.
* Galatea: Sea nymph; loved by Polyphemus.
* Ganymede: Beautiful boy; successor to Hebe as cupbearer of gods.
* Glaucus: Mortal who became sea divinity by eating magic grass.
* Golden Fleece: Fleece from ram that flew Phrixos to Colchis; Aeëtes placed it under guard of dragon; carried off by Jason.
* Gorgons. Female monsters; Euryale, Medusa, and Stheno; had snakes for hair; their glances turned mortals to stone.
* Graces: Beautiful goddesses: Aglaia (Brilliance), Euphrosyne (Joy), and Thalia (Bloom); daughters of Zeus.
* Graeae. Sentinels for Gorgons.; Deino, Enyo, and Pephredo; had one eye among them, which passed from one to another.
* Hades (Dis): Name sometimes given Pluto; also, abode of dead, ruled by Pluto.
* Haemon: Son of Creon; promised husband of Antigone; killed himself in her tomb.
* Hamadryads: Tree nymphs.
* Harpies: Monsters with heads of women and bodies of birds.
* Hebe (Juventas): Goddess of youth; cupbearer of gods before Ganymede; daughter of Zeus and Hera.
* Hecate: Goddess of sorcery and witchcraft.
* Hector: Son of Priam; slayer of Patroclus; slain by Achilles.
* Hecuba: Wife of Priam.
* Helen: Fairest woman in world; daughter of Zeus and Leda; wife of Menelaus; carried to Troy by Paris, causing Trojan War.
* Heliades: Daughters of Helios; mourned for Phaëthon and were changed to poplar trees.
* Helios (Sol): God of sun; later identified with Apollo.
* Helle: Sister of Phrixos; fell from ram of Golden Fleece; water where she fell named Hellespont.
* Hephaestus (Vulcan): God of fire; celestial blacksmith; son of Zeus and Hera; husband of Aphrodite.
* Hera (Juno): Queen of heaven; wife of Zeus.
* Hercules: Hero and strong man; son of Zeus and Alcmene; performed twelve labors or deeds to be free from bondage under Eurystheus; after death, his mortal share was destroyed, and he became immortal. Also known as Herakles or Heracles. Labors: (1) killing Nemean lion; (2) killing Lernaean Hydra; (3) capturing Erymanthian boar; (4) capturing Cerynean hind; (5) killing man-eating Stymphalian birds; (6) procuring girdle of Hippolyte; (7) cleaning Augean stables; (8) capturing Cretan bull; (9) capturing man-eating horses of Diomedes; (10) capturing cattle of Geryon; (11) procuring golden apples of Hesperides; (12) bringing Cerberus up from Hades.
* Hermes (Mercury): God of physicians and thieves; messenger of gods; son of Zeus and Maia.
* Hero: Priestess of Aphrodite; Leander swam Hellespont nightly to see her; drowned herself at his death.
* Hesperus: Evening star.
* Hestia (Vesta): Goddess of hearth; sister of Zeus.
* Hippolyte: Queen of Amazons; wife of Theseus.
* Hippolytus: Son of Theseus and Hippolyte; falsely accused by Phaedra of trying to kidnap her; slain by Poseidon at request of Theseus.
* Hippomenes: Husband of Atalanta, whom he beat in race by dropping golden apples, which she stopped to pick up.
* Hyacinthus: Beautiful youth accidentally killed by Apollo, who caused flower to spring up from his blood.
* Hydra: Nine-headed monster in marsh of Lerna; slain by Hercules.
* Hygeia: Personification of health.
* Hymen: God of marriage.
* Hyperion: Titan; early sun god; father of Helios.
* Hypermnestra: Daughter of Danaüs; refused to kill her husband Lynceus.
* Hypnos (Somnus): God of sleep.
* Iapetus: Titan; father of Atlas, Epimetheus, and Prometheus.
* Icarus: Son of Daedalus; flew too near sun with wax-attached wings and fell into sea and was drowned.
* Io: Mortal maiden loved by Zeus; changed by Hera into heifer.
* Iobates: King of Lycia; sent Bellerophon to slay Chimera.
* Iphigenia: Daughter of Agamemnon; offered as sacrifice to Artemis at Aulis; carried by Artemis to Tauris where she became priestess; escaped from there with Orestes.
* Iris: Goddess of rainbow; messenger of Zeus and Hera.
* Ismene: Daughter of Oedipus; sister of Antigone.
* Iulus: Son of Aeneas.
* Ixion: King of Lapithae; for making love to Hera he was bound to endlessly revolving wheel in Tartarus.
* Janus: Roman god of gates and doors; represented with two opposite faces.
* Jason: Son of Aeson; to gain throne of Ioclus from Pelias, went to Colchis and brought back Golden Fleece; married Medea; deserted her for Creüsa.
* Jocasta: Wife of Laius; mother of Oedipus; unwittingly became wife of Oedipus; hanged herself when relationship was discovered.
* Juno: See Hera.
* Jupiter: See Zeus.
* Juventas: See Hebe.
* Lachesis: One of several Fates.
* Laius: Father of Oedipus, by whom he was slain.
* Laocoön: Priest of Apollo at Troy; warned against bringing wooden horse into Troy; destroyed with his two sons by serpents sent by Athena.
* Lares: Roman ancestral spirits protecting descendants and homes.
* Latona: See Leto.
* Lavinia: Wife of Aeneas after defeat of Turnus.
* Leander: Swam Hellespont nightly to see Hero; drowned in storm.
* Leda: Mortal loved by Zeus in form of swan; mother of Helen, Clytemnestra, Dioscuri.
* Lethe: One of several Rivers of Underworld.
* Leto (Latona): Mother by Zeus of Artemis and Apollo.
* Lucina: Roman goddess of childbirth; identified with Juno.
* Lynceus: Son of Aegyptus; husband of Hypermnestra; slew Danaüs.
* Maia: Daughter of Atlas; mother of Hermes.
* Maia: One of several Pleiades.
* Manes: Souls of dead Romans, particularly of ancestors.
* Mars: See Ares.
* Marsyas: Shepherd; challenged Apollo to music contest and lost; flayed alive by Apollo.
* Medea: Sorceress; daughter of Aeëtes; helped Jason obtain Golden Fleece; when deserted by him for Creüsa, killed her children and Creüsa.
* Medusa: One of several Gorgons. slain by Perseus, who cut off her head.
* Megaera: One of several Furies.
* Meleager: Son of Althaea; his life would last as long as brand burning at his birth; Althaea quenched and saved it but destroyed it when Meleager slew his uncles.
* Melpomene: One of several Muses.
* Memnon: Ethiopian king; made immortal by Zeus; son of Tithonus and Eos.
* Menelaus: King of Sparta; son of Atreus; brother of Agamemnon; husband of Helen.
* Mentor: Tutor of Telemachus and friend of Odysseus. In the Odyssey, on several occasions, Athena assumes form of Mentor to give advice to Telemachus or Odysseus
* Mercury: See Hermes.
* Merope: One of several Pleiades. Merope is said to have hidden in shame for loving a mortal.
* Mezentius: Cruel Etruscan king; ally of Turnus against Aeneas; slain by Aeneas.
* Midas: King of Phrygia; given gift of turning to gold all he touched.
* Minerva: See Athena.
* Minos: King of Crete; after death, one of three judges of dead in Hades; son of Zeus and Europa.
* Minotaur: Monster, half man and half beast, kept in Labyrinth in Crete; slain by Theseus.
* Mnemosyne: Goddess of memory; mother by Zeus of Muses.
* Moirae: One of several Fates.
* Momus: God of ridicule.
* Morpheus: God of dreams.
* Mors: See Thanatos.
* Morta: One of several Fates.
* Muses: Goddesses presiding over arts and sciences: Calliope (epic poetry), Clio (history), Erato (lyric and love poetry), Euterpe (music), Melpomene (tragedy), Polymnia or Polyhymnia (sacred poetry), Terpsichore (choral dance and song), Thalia (comedy and bucolic poetry), Urania (astronomy); daughters of Zeus and Mnemosyne.
* Naiads: Nymphs of waters, streams, and fountains.
* Napaeae: Wood nymphs.
* Narcissus: Beautiful youth loved by Echo; in punishment for not returning her love, he was made to fall in love with his image reflected in pool; pined away and became flower.
* Nemesis: Goddess of retribution.
* Neoptolemus: Son of Achilles; slew Priam; also known as Pyrrhus.
* Neptune: See Poseidon.
* Nereids: Sea nymphs; attendants on Poseidon.
* Nestor: King of Pylos; noted for wise counsel in expedition against Troy.
* Nike: Goddess of victory.
* Niobe: Daughter of Tantalus; wife of Amphion; her children slain by Apollo and Artemis; changed to stone but continued to weep her loss.
* Nona: One of several Fates.
* Notus: One of several Winds.
* Nox: See Nyx.
* Nymphs: Beautiful maidens; minor deities of nature.
* Nyx (Nox): Goddess of night.
* Oceanids: Ocean nymphs; daughters of Oceanus.
* Oceanus: Eldest of Titans; god of waters.
* Odysseus (Ulysses): King of Ithaca; husband of Penelope; wandered ten years after fall of Troy before arriving home.
* Oedipus: King of Thebes; son of Laius and Jocasta; unwittingly murdered Laius and married Jocasta; tore his eyes out when relationship was discovered.
* Oenone: Nymph of Mount Ida; wife of Paris, who abandoned her; refused to cure him when he was poisoned by arrow of Philoctetes at Troy.
* Ops: See Rhea.
* Oreads: Mountain nymphs.
* Orestes: Son of Agamemnon and Clytemnestra; brother of Electra; slew Clytemnestra and Aegisthus; pursued by Furies until his purification by Apollo.
* Orion: Hunter; slain by Artemis and made heavenly constellation.
* Orpheus: Famed musician; son of Apollo and Muse Calliope; husband of Eurydice.
* Pales: Roman goddess of shepherds and herdsmen.
* Palinurus: Aeneas' pilot; fell overboard in his sleep and was drowned.
* Pan (Faunus): God of woods and fields; part goat; son of Hermes.
* Pandora: Opener of box containing human ills; mortal wife of Epimetheus.
* Parcae: One of several Fates.
* Paris: Son of Priam; gave apple of discord to Aphrodite, for which she enabled him to carry off Helen; slew Achilles at Troy; slain by Philoctetes.
* Patroclus: Great friend of Achilles; wore Achilles' armor and was slain by Hector.
* Pegasus: Winged horse that sprang from Medusa's body at her death; ridden by Bellerophon when he slew Chimera.
* Pelias: King of Ioclus; seized throne from his brother Aeson; sent Jason for Golden Fleece; slain unwittingly by his daughters at instigation of Medea.
* Pelops: Son of Tantalus; his father cooked and served him to gods; restored to life; Peloponnesus named for him.
* Penates: Roman household gods.
* Penelope: Wife of Odysseus; waited faithfully for him for many years while putting off numerous suitors.
* Pephredo: One of several Graeae.
* Periphetes: Giant; son of Hephaestus; slain by Theseus.
* Persephone (Proserpine): Queen of infernal regions; daughter of Zeus and Demeter; wife of Pluto.
* Perseus: Son of Zeus and Danaë; slew Medusa; rescued Andromeda from monster and married her.
* Phaedra: Daughter of Minos; wife of Theseus; caused the death of her stepson, Hippolytus.
* Phaethon: Son of Helios; drove his father's sun chariot and was struck down by Zeus before he set world on fire.
* Philoctetes: Greek warrior who possessed Hercules' bow and arrows; slew Paris at Troy with poisoned arrow.
* Phineus: Betrothed of Andromeda; tried to slay Perseus but turned to stone by Medusa's head.
* Phlegethon: One of several Rivers of Underworld.
* Phosphor: Morning star.
* Phrixos: Brother of Helle; carried by ram of Golden Fleece to Colchis.
* Pirithous: Son of Ixion; friend of Theseus; tried to carry off Persephone from Hades; bound to enchanted rock by Pluto.
* Pleiades: Alcyone, Celaeno, Electra, Maia, Merope, Sterope or Asterope, Taygeta; seven daughters of Atlas; transformed into heavenly constellation, of which six stars are visible (Merope is said to have hidden in shame for loving a mortal).
* Pluto (Dis): God of Hades; brother of Zeus.
* Plutus: God of wealth.
* Pollux: One of Dioscuri.
* Polyhymnia: See Polymnia.
* Polymnia (Polyhymnia): One of several Muses.
* Polynices: Son of Oedipus; he and his brother Eteocles killed each other; burial rite, forbidden by Creon, performed by his sister Antigone.
* Polyphemus: Cyclops; devoured six of Odysseus's men; blinded by Odysseus.
* Polyxena: Daughter of Priam; betrothed to Achilles, whom Paris slew at their betrothal; sacrificed to shade of Achilles.
* Pomona: Roman goddess of fruits.
* Pontus: Sea god; son of Gaea.
* Poseidon (Neptune): God of sea; brother of Zeus.
* Priam: King of Troy; husband of Hecuba; ransomed Hector's body from Achilles; slain by Neoptolemus.
* Priapus: God of regeneration.
* Procris: Wife of Cephalus, who accidentally slew her.
* Procrustes: Giant; stretched or cut off legs of victims to make them fit iron bed; slain by Theseus.
* Proetus: Husband of Anteia; sent Bellerophon to Iobates to be put to death.
* Prometheus: Titan; stole fire from heaven for man. Zeus punished him by chaining him to rock in Caucasus where vultures devoured his liver daily.
* Proserpine: See Persephone.
* Proteus: Sea god; assumed various shapes when called on to prophesy.
* Psyche: Beloved of Eros; punished by jealous Aphrodite; made immortal and united with Eros.
* Pygmalion: King of Cyprus; carved ivory statue of maiden which Aphrodite gave life as Galatea.
* Pyramus: Babylonian youth; made love to Thisbe through hole in wall; thinking Thisbe slain by lion, killed himself.
* Python: Serpent born from slime left by Deluge; slain by Apollo.
* Quirinus: Roman war god.
* Remus: Brother of Romulus; slain by him.
* Rhadamanthus: One of three judges of dead in Hades; son of Zeus and Europa.
* Rhea (Ops): Daughter of Uranus and Gaea; wife of Cronus; mother of Zeus; identified with Cybele.
* Rivers of Underworld. Acheron (woe), Cocytus (wailing), Lethe (forgetfulness), Phlegethon (fire), Styx (across which souls of dead were ferried by Charon).
* Romulus: Founder of Rome; he and Remus suckled in infancy by she-wolf; slew Remus; deified by Romans.
* Sarpedon: King of Lycia; son of Zeus and Europa; slain by Patroclus at Troy.
* Saturn: See Cronus.
* Satyrs: Hoofed demigods of woods and fields; companions of Dionysus.
* Sciron: Robber; forced strangers to wash his feet, then hurled them into sea where tortoise devoured them; slain by Theseus.
* Scylla: Female monster inhabiting rock opposite Charybdis; menaced passing sailors.
* Selene: Goddess of moon.
* Semele: Daughter of Cadmus; mother by Zeus of Dionysus; demanded Zeus appear before her in all his splendor and was destroyed by his lightning bolts.
* Sibyis: Various prophetesses; most famous, Cumaean sibyl, accompanied Aeneas into Hades.
* Sileni: Minor woodland deities similar to satyrs (singular: silenus). Sometimes Silenus refers to eldest of satyrs, son of Hermes or of Pan.
* Silvanus: Roman god of woods and fields.
* Sinis: Giant; bent pines, with which he hurled victims against side of mountain; slain by Theseus.
* Sirens: Minor deities who lured sailors to destruction with their singing.
* Sisyphus: King of Corinth; condemned in Tartarus to roll huge stone to top of hill; it always rolled back down again.
* Sol: See Helios.
* Somnus: See Hypnos.
* Sphinx: Monster of Thebes; killed those who could not answer her riddle; slain by Oedipus. Name also refers to other monsters having body of lion, wings, and head and bust of woman.
* Sterope (Asterope): One of several Pleiades.
* Stheno: One of several Gorgons.
* Styx: One of several Rivers of Underworld. The souls of the dead were ferried across the Styx by Charon.
* Symplegades: Clashing rocks at entrance to Black Sea; Argo passed through, causing them to become forever fixed.
* Syrinx: Nymph pursued by Pan; changed to reeds, from which he made his pipes.
* Tantalus: Cruel king; father of Pelops and Niobe; condemned in Tartarus to stand chin-deep in lake surrounded by fruit branches; as he tried to eat or drink, water or fruit always receded.
* Tartarus: Underworld below Hades; often refers to Hades.
* Taygeta: One of several Pleiades.
* Telemachus: Son of Odysseus; made unsuccessful journey to find his father.
* Tellus: Roman goddess of earth.
* Terminus: Roman god of boundaries and landmarks.
* Terpsichore: One of several Muses.
* Terra: Roman earth goddess.
* Thalia: One of several Graces. Also one of several Muses.
* Thanatos (Mors): God of death.
* Themis: Titan goddess of laws of physical phenomena; daughter of Uranus; mother of Prometheus.
* Theseus: Son of Aegeus; slew Minotaur; married and deserted Ariadne; later married Phaedra.
* Thisbe: Beloved of Pyramus; killed herself at his death.
* Thyestes: Brother of Atreus; Atreus killed three of his sons and served them to him at banquet.
* Tiresias: Blind soothsayer of Thebes.
* Tisiphone: One of several Furies.
* Titans: Early gods from which Olympian gods were derived; children of Uranus and Gaea.
* Tithonus: Mortal loved by Eos; changed into grasshopper.
* Triton: Demigod of sea; son of Poseidon.
* Turnus: King of Rutuli in Italy; betrothed to Lavinia; slain by Aeneas.
* Ulysses: See Odysseus.
* Urania: One of several Muses.
* Uranus: Personification of Heaven; husband of Gaea; father of Titans; dethroned by his son Cronus.
* Venus: See Aphrodite.
* Vertumnus: Roman god of fruits and vegetables; husband of Pomona.
* Vesta: See Hestia.
* Vulcan: See Hephaestus.
* Winds: Aeolus (keeper of winds), Boreas (Aquilo) (north wind), Eurus (east wind), Notus (Auster) (south wind), Zephyrus (Favonius) (west wind).
* Zephyrus: One of several Winds.
* Zeus (Jupiter): Chief of Olympian gods; son of Cronus and Rhea; husband of Hera.

List of characters from Norse mythology

Norse Mythology

* Aesir: Chief gods of Asgard.
* Andvari: Dwarf; robbed of gold and magic ring by Loki.
* Angerbotha (Angrbotha): Giantess; mother by Loki of Fenrir, Hel, and Midgard serpent.
* Asgard (Asgarth): Abode of gods.
* Ask (Aske, Askr): First man; created by Odin, Hoenir, and Lothur.
* Asynjur: Goddesses of Asgard.
* Atli: Second husband of Gudrun; invited Gunnar and Hogni to his court, where they were slain; slain by Gudrun.
* Audhumia (Audhumbla): Cow that nourished Ymir; created Buri by licking ice cliff.
* Balder (Baldr, Baldur): God of light, spring, peace, joy; son of Odin; slain by Hoth at instigation of Loki.
* Bifrost: Rainbow bridge connecting Midgard and Asgard.
* Bragi (Brage): God of poetry; husband of Ithunn.
* Branstock: Great oak in hall of Volsungs; into it, Odin thrust Gram, which only Sigmund could draw forth.
* Brynhild: Valkyrie; wakened from magic sleep by Sigurd; married Gunnar; instigated death of Sigurd; killed herself and was burned on pyre beside Sigurd.
* Bur (Bor): Son of Buri; father of Odin, Hoenir, and Lothur.
* Buri (Bori): Progenitor of gods; father of Bur; created by Audhumla.
* Embla: First woman; created by Odin, Hoenir, and Lothur.
* Fafnir: Son of Rodmar, whom he slew for gold in Otter's skin; in form of dragon, guarded gold; slain by Sigurd.
* Fenrir: Wolf; offspring of Loki; swallows Odin at Ragnarok and is slain by Vitharr.
* Forseti: Son of Balder.
* Frey (Freyr): God of fertility and crops; son of Njorth; originally one of Vanir.
* Freya (Freyja): Goddess of love and beauty; sister of Frey; originally one of Vanir.
* Frigg (Frigga): Goddess of sky; wife of Odin.
* Garm: Watchdog of Hel; slays, and is slain by, Tyr at Ragnarok.
* Gimle: Home of blessed after Ragnarok.
* Giuki: King of Nibelungs; father of Gunnar, Hogni, Guttorm, and Gudrun.
* Glathsehim (Gladsheim): Hall of gods in Asgard.
* Gram (meaning “Angry”): Sigmund's sword; rewelded by Regin; used by Sigurd to slay Fafnir.
* Greyfell: Sigmund's horse; descended from Sleipnir.
* Grimhild: Mother of Gudrun; administered magic potion to Sigurd which made him forget Brynhild.
* Gudrun: Daughter of Giuki; wife of Sigurd; later wife of Atli and Jonakr.
* Gunnar: Son of Giuki; in his semblance Sigurd won Brynhild for him; slain at hall of Atli.
* Guttorm: Son of Giuki; slew Sigurd at Brynhild's request.
* Heimdall (Heimdallr): Guardian of Asgard.
* Hel: Goddess of dead and queen of underworld; daughter of Loki.
* Hiordis: Wife of Sigmund; mother of Sigurd.
* Hoenir: One of creators of Ask and Embla; son of Bur.
* Hogni: Son of Giuki; slain at hall of Atli.
* Hoth (Hoder, Hodur): Blind god of night and darkness; slayer of Balder at instigation of Loki.
* Ithunn (Ithun, Iduna): Keeper of golden apples of youth; wife of Bragi.
* Jonakr: Third husband of Gudrun.
* Jormunrek: Slayer of Swanhild; slain by sons of Gudrun.
* Jotunnheim (Jotunheim): Abode of giants.
* Lif and Lifthrasir: First man and woman after Ragnarok.
* Loki: God of evil and mischief; instigator of Balder's death.
* Lothur (Lodur): One of creators of Ask and Embla.
* Midgard (Midgarth): Abode of mankind; the earth.
* Midgard Serpent: Sea monster; offspring of Loki; slays, and is slain by, Thor at Ragnarok.
* Mimir: Giant; guardian of well in Jotunnheim at root of Yggdrasill; knower of past and future.
* Mjollnir: Magic hammer of Thor.
* Nagifar: Ship to be used by giants in attacking Asgard at Ragnarok; built from nails of dead men.
* Nanna: Wife of Balder.
* Nibelungs: Dwellers in northern kingdom ruled by Giuki.
* Niflheim (Nifelheim): Outer region of cold and darkness; abode of Hel.
* Njorth: Father of Frey and Freya; originally one of Vanir.
* Norns: Demigoddesses of fate: Urth (Urdur) (past), Verthandi (Verdandi) (present), Skuld (future).
* Odin (Othin): Head of Aesir; creator of world with Vili and Ve; equivalent to Woden (Wodan, Wotan) in Teutonic mythology.
* Otter: Son of Rodmar; slain by Loki; his skin filled with gold hoard of Andvari to appease Rodmar.
* Ragnarok: Final destruction of present world in battle between gods and giants; some minor gods will survive, and Lif and Lifthrasir will repeople world.
* Regin: Blacksmith; son of Rodmar; foster-father of Sigurd.
* Rerir: King of Huns; son of Sigi.
* Rodmar: Father of Regin, Otter, and Fafnir; demanded Otter's skin be filled with gold; slain by Fafnir, who stole gold.
* Sif: Wife of Thor.
* Siggeir: King of Goths; husband of Signy; he and his sons slew Volsung and his sons, except Sigmund; slain by Sigmund and Sinflotli.
* Sigi: King of Huns; son of Odin.
* Sigmund: Son of Volsung; brother of Signy, who bore him Sinflotli; husband of Hiordis, who bore him Sigurd.
* Signy: Daughter of Volsung; sister of Sigmund; wife of Siggeir; mother by Sigmund of Sinflotli.
* Sigurd: Son of Sigmund and Hiordis; wakened Brynhild from magic sleep; married Gudrun; slain by Guttorm at instigation of Brynhild.
* Sigyn: Wife of Loki.
* Sinflotli: Son of Sigmund and Signy.
* Skuld: One of several Norns.
* Sleipnir (Sleipner): Eight-legged horse of Odin.
* Surt (Surtr): Fire demon; slays Frey at Ragnarok.
* Svartalfaheim: Abode of dwarfs.
* Swanhild: Daughter of Sigurd and Gudrun; slain by Jormunrek.
* Thor: God of thunder; oldest son of Odin; equivalent to Germanic deity Donar.
* Tyr: God of war; son of Odin; equivalent to Tiu in Teutonic mythology.
* Ull (Ullr): Son of Sif; stepson of Thor.
* Urth: One of several Norns.
* Valhalla (Valhall): Great hall in Asgard where Odin received souls of heroes killed in battle.
* Vali: Odin's son: Ragnarok survivor.
* Valkyries: Virgins, messengers of Odin, who selected heroes to die in battle and took them to Valhalla; generally considered as nine in number.
* Vanir: Early race of gods; three survivors, Njorth, Frey, and Freya, are associated with Aesir.
* Ve: Brother of Odin; one of creators of world.
* Verthandi: One of several Norns.
* Vili: Brother of Odin; one of creators of world.
* Vingolf: Abode of goddesses in Asgard.
* Vitharr (Vithar): Son of Odin; survivor of Ragnarok.
* Volsung: Descendant of Odin, and father of Signy, Sigmund; his descendants were called Volsungs.
* Yggdrasill: Giant ash tree springing from body of Ymir and supporting universe; its roots extended to Asgard, Jotunnheim, and Niffheim.
* Ymir (Ymer): Primeval frost giant killed by Odin, Vili, and Ve; world created from his body; also, from his body sprang Yggdrasill.

Norse mythology

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

The Norse gods were mortal, and they had to eat Iðunn's golden apples in order not to age until Ragnarök when most of them would die. Image by J. Penrose, 1890.
The Norse gods were mortal, and they had to eat Iðunn's golden apples in order not to age until Ragnarök when most of them would die. Image by J. Penrose, 1890.
Topics in Norse mythology Æsir (gods) Andhrímnir, Baldr, Borr, Bragi, Búri, Dagr, Delling, Forseti, Heimdall, Hermóðr, Höðr, Hœnir, Kvasir, Lóðurr, Loki, Móði and Magni, Óðr, Odin, Ríg, Thor, Tyr, Váli, Vé, Vidar, Vili
Ásynjur (goddesses) Bil, Eir, Frigg, Gná, Hlín, Iðunn, Jord, Lofn, Nanna, Nótt, Saga, Sif, Sigyn, Sjöfn, Snotra, Sól, Syn, Var, Vör, Þrúðr
Vanir
(gods and goddesses) Freyr (Yngvi), Freyja, Gullveig, Nerthus, Njord, Ullr
Norns (fates) Urd, Verdandi, Skuld
Valkyries Brynhildr, Göndul, Gunnr, Hildr, Hlaðgunnr, Róta, Skuld, Sigrdrífa, Sigrún, Skögul, Sváva, Þrúðr
Elves (Álfar) Beyla, Byggvir, Dökkálfar, Svartálfar, Volund
Jotuns (giants) Ægir, Angrboda, Baugi, Beli, Bergelmir, Bestla, Billing, Bolthorn, Byleist, Elli, Fárbauti, Fenja, Fjalar, Fornjót, Geirrod, Gerd, Gjálp and Greip, Gilling, Grid, Gunnlod, Gymir, Hel, Hrym, Hræsvelgr, Hrod, Hrungnir, Hymir, Hyndla, Hyrrokkin, Járnsaxa, Kari, Laufey, Loki, Mani (moon), Menja, Modgunn, Mundilfari, Muspel, Mökkurkálfi, Narfi, Olvaldi, Ragnhild, Rán, Rind, Skaði, Snær, Suttung, Surtr, Thokk, Þjazi, Þrívaldi, Þrúðgelmir, Þrymr, Utgardaloki, Vafþrúðnir, Ymir
Dwarves Alvíss, Andvari, Berling, Brokkr, Durin, Dvalinn, Eitri, Fafnir, Fjalar and Galar, Gandalf, Hjuki, Hreidmar, Litr, Nordri, Sudri, Austri and Vestri, Nyi and Nidi, Otr, Regin, Sindri
Humans Adils, Agne, Ask, Aslaug (Kraka), Björn Ironside, Bödvar Bjarki, Berserkers, Dag the Wise, Domalde, Draugr, Dyggve, Egil, Einherjar, Embla, Erik and Alrik, Fjölnir, Frodi, Glam, Grimhild, Gylfi, Haddingjar, Hagbard and Signy, Haki, Halfdan, Halfdan the Old, Harald Hildetand, Hedin, Helgi Hundingsbane, Hjalmar, Hrólf Kraki, Hugleik, Hvitserk, Ingeborg, Ingjald, Jorund, Karl, Krimhild, Lif and Lifthrasir, Marmennill, Nór, Ottar, Raum the Old, Röskva, Sigar, Siggeir, Sigmund, Signy, Sigurd, Sigurd Ring, Sinfjötli, Skagul Toste, Skirnir, Sveigder, Svipdag, Þjálfi, Vanlade, Völva, Yngvi and Alf, Yrsa
Beasts Arvak and Alsvid, Auðumbla, Blóðughófi, Eikþyrnir, Fenrisulfr, Garm, Geri and Freki, Grani, Gullinbursti, Gullinkambi, Gulltopp, Hati, Heiðrún, Hildisvíni, Hófvarpnir, Hræsvelgr, Hrímfaxi, Hugin and Munin, Jörmungandr, Lindorm, Mánagarmr, Níðhöggr, Ratatosk, Skinfaxi, Skoll, Sleipnir, Svadilfari, Sæhrímnir, Tanngrisnir and Tanngnjóstr, Varulf, Veðrfölnir
Locations Álfheim, Andlang, Ásgard, Barri, Bifröst, Bilskirnir, Breidablik, Élivágar, Eliudnir, Fensalir, Fólkvangr, Gimlé, Ginnungagap, Gjallar Bridge, Gjöll, Gladsheim, Glasir, Glitnir, Gnipahellir, Helgrindr, Helveg, Himinbjörg, Hindarfjall, Hörgr, Körmt and Örmt, Idavoll, Jötunheimr, Ironwood, Hlidskjalf, Midgard, Muspelheim, Mirkwood, Náströnd, Niflheim, Noatun, Sessrúmnir, Singasteinn, Slidr River, Sökkvabekkr, Þrúðvangr, Þrymheimr, Utgard, Valhalla, Vanaheim, Hvergelmir, Vigrid, Vimur, Vingólf, Ýdalir, Yggdrasil
Artifacts Andvarinaut, Brisingamen, Draupnir, Eldhrímnir, Gand, Gjallarhorn, Gleipnir, Gram, Grotte, Gungnir, Helskór, Megingjord, Well of Mimir, Mistilteinn, Mjölnir, Naglfar, Óðrerir, Reginnaglar, Hringhorni, Skíðblaðnir, Tyrfing, Well of Urd
Worship Blót, Hörgr, Human sacrifice, Seid, Sumbel, Temple at Uppsala, Thor's Hammer, Völva, Yule

Norse, Viking or Scandinavian mythology comprises the indigenous pre-Christian religion, beliefs and legends of the Scandinavian peoples, including those who settled on Iceland, where most of the written sources for Norse mythology were assembled. Norse mythology is the best-preserved version of the older common Germanic paganism, which also includes the closely related Anglo-Saxon mythology. Germanic mythology, in its turn, developed from an earlier Indo-European mythology.

Norse mythology is a collection of beliefs and stories shared by Northern Germanic tribes. It had no one set of doctrinal beliefs. The mythology was orally transmitted in the form of poetry and modern knowledge about it is mainly based on the Eddas and other medieval texts written down during and after Christianization.

Some aspects of Norse mythology passed into Scandinavian folklore and have survived to modern day. Others have recently been reinvented or reconstructed as Germanic neopaganism. The mythology also remains as an inspiration in literature (see Norse mythological influences on later literature) as well as on stage productions and movies.
Contents


* 1 Sources
* 2 Cosmology
o 2.1 Supernatural beings
o 2.2 Völuspá: the origin and end of the world
+ 2.2.1 The beginning
+ 2.2.2 The end times (Eschatological beliefs)
* 3 Kings and heroes
* 4 Norse worship
o 4.1 Centres of faith
o 4.2 Priests
o 4.3 Human sacrifice
* 5 Interactions with Christianity
* 6 Modern influences
o 6.1 Viking revival
o 6.2 Germanic neopaganism
o 6.3 Modern popular culture
* 7 Bibliography
o 7.1 Notes
o 7.2 Primary sources
o 7.3 General secondary works
o 7.4 Romanticism
o 7.5 Modern retellings
* 8 Music
* 9 See also
* 10 External links

Sources

Most of the existing records on Norse mythology date from the 12th to 18th century, having gone through more than two centuries of oral preservation in what was at least officially a Christian society. At this point scholars started recording it, particularly in the Eddas and the Heimskringla by Snorri Sturluson, who believed that pre-Christian deities trace real historical people. There is also the Danish Gesta Danorum by Saxo Grammaticus, where the Norse gods are more strongly Euhemerized. The Prose or Younger Edda was written in the early 13th century by Snorri Sturluson, who was a leading poet, chieftain, and diplomat in Iceland. It may be thought of primarily as a handbook for aspiring poets. It contains prose explications of traditional "kennings," or compressed metaphors found in poetry. These prose retellings make the various tales of the Norse gods systematic and coherent.

The Poetic Edda (also known as the Elder Edda) was committed to writing about 50 years after the Prose Edda. It contains 29 long poems, of which 11 deal with the Germanic deities, the rest with legendary heroes like Sigurd the Volsung (the Siegfried of the German version Nibelungenlied). Although scholars think it was transcribed later than the other Edda, the language and poetic forms involved in the tales appear to have been composed centuries earlier than their transcription.

Besides these sources, there are surviving legends in Scandinavian folklore. Some of these can be corroborated with legends appearing in other Germanic literatures e.g. the tale related in the Anglo-Saxon Battle of Finnsburgh and the many allusions to mythological tales in Deor. When several partial references and tellings survive, scholars can deduce the underlying tale. Additionally, there are hundreds of place names in Scandinavia named after the gods.

A few runic inscriptions, such as the Rök Runestone and the Kvinneby amulet, make references to the mythology. There are also several runestones and image stones that depict scenes from Norse mythology, such as Thor's fishing trip, scenes depicting Sigurd (Sigfried) the dragon slayer, Odin and Sleipnir, Odin being devoured by Fenrir, and one of the surviving stones from the Hunnestad Monument appears to show Hyrrokkin riding to Baldr's funeral (DR 284).

In Denmark, one image stone depicts Loki with curled dandy-like mustaches and lips that are sewn together and the British Gosforth cross shows several intriguing images. There are also smaller images, such as figurines depicting the god Odin (with one eye), Thor (with his hammer) and Freyr (with his erect phallus).

Cosmology

Main article: Norse cosmology

Scandinavians believed there are 'nine worlds' (níu heimar), that many scholars summarize as follows:

* Ásgarðr, world of the Æsir.
* Vanaheimr, world of the Vanir.
* Miðgarðr, world of humans.
* Muspellheim, world of the primordial element of fire.
* Niflheimr, world of the primordial element of ice
* Hel, underworld, world of the dead.
* Álfheimr, world of the Álfar (elves).
* Svartalfheim or Nidavellir, world of the Dvergar (Norse dwarves).
* Jötunheimr, world of the Jötnar (giants).

Note the boundaries between Niflheim, Jötunheimr, Hel, Niðavellir, Svartálfaheimr, and several other significant places like Utgarðr remain uncertain.

Each world also had significant places within. Valhalla was Odin's hall located in Asgard. It was also home of the Einherjar, who were the souls of the greatest warriors. These warriors were selected by the Valkyries, Odin's mounted female messengers whose sparkling armor supposedly created the famed Aurora Borealis, or the northern lights. The Einherjar would help defend the gods during Ragnarok, when everyone would die in a great battle between the gods and their iniquitous enemies. A battle, incidentally, emphasising an order-versus-chaos duality common to many ancient mythologies and no less present in Norse mythology. Niflhel was a hellish place in Hel, where oathbreakers and other criminals suffered torments (compare Greek Tartarus).

These worlds were connected by Yggdrasil, or the world ash root, a giant tree with Asgard at its top. Chewing at its roots in Niflheim was Nidhogg, a ferocious serpent or dragon. Asgard can also be reached by Bifrost, the magical rainbow bridge guarded by Heimdall, the mute god of vigilance who could see and hear a thousand miles.

The cosmology of Norse mythology also involves a strong element of duality; for example the night and the day have their own mythological counterparts-- Dagr/Skinfaxi and Nótt/Hrímfaxi, the sun Sól and the chasing wolf Skoll, the moon Mani and its chasing wolf Hati, and the total opposites of Niflheim and Muspell in the origin of the world. This might have reflected a deeper metaphysical belief in opposites as the foundation of the world.

Supernatural beings

There are several "clans" of Vættir or animistic nature spirits: the Æsir and Vanir, understood as gods, plus the Jötnar, the Álfar and Dvergar. To this list can be added the dead in the Underworld. The distinction between Æsir and Vanir is relative, for the two are said to have made peace, exchanged hostages, intermarried and reigned together after a prolonged war, which the Æsir had finally won. Some gods belong in both camps. Some authorities (compare Mircea Eliade and J.P. Mallory) consider the Æsir/Vanir division to be simply the Norse expression of a general Indo-European division of divinities, parallel to that of Olympians and Titans in Greek mythology and to a similar structure in parts of the Mahabharata.
Thor often fought the giants.
Thor often fought the giants.

Generally, despite ambiguity, the Æsir and their allies represent the natural forces of cosmic order, whereas the Jötnar represent the natural forces of destructive chaos. The Jötnar compare to the Titans and Gigantes of Greek mythology and generally translated as "giants", although "trolls" and "demons" have been suggested as suitable alternatives. Notably, a foreboding figure like Loki was the child of two giants, and likewise Hel his daughter. Even so, the Æsir frequently intermarry the Jötnar, and themselves for the most part descend from them. Loki himself is thought to be the blood brother of Óðinn and thus counted as one of the Æsir. Some of the giants are mentioned by name in the Eddas, and they seem to be representations of natural forces. There are two general types of giant: Thurses and the normal thuggish giant, but there was also a giant made of stone and a giant made of fire. There were also elves and dwarfs, whose role is shadowy but who are generally thought to side with the gods.

In addition, there are many other supernatural beings: Fenrir the gigantic wolf, and Jörmungandr the sea-serpent (or "worm") that is coiled around Midgard. These two monsters are described as the progeny of Loki. More benevolent creatures are Hugin and Munin (thought and memory, respectively), the two ravens who keep Odin, the chief god, apprised of what is happening on earth, since he gave his eye to the Well of Mimir in his quest for wisdom, Sleipnir, Loki's eight legged horse son belonging to Odin and Ratatosk, the squirrel which scampers in the branches of Yggdrasil.

Along with many other polytheistic religions, this mythology lacks the good-evil dualism of the Middle Eastern tradition. Thus, Loki is not primarily an adversary of the gods, though he is often portrayed in the stories as the nemesis to the protagonist Thor, and the giants are not so much fundamentally evil, as rude, boisterous, and uncivilized (except in the case of the Thurses who were not quite so uncivilized). The dualism that exists is not good vs. evil, but order vs. chaos. The gods represent order and structure whereas the giants and the monsters represent chaos and disorder.

Völuspá: the origin and end of the world

The origin and eventual fate of the world are described in Völuspá ("Prophecy [spá] of the völva"), one of the most striking poems in the Poetic Edda. These haunting verses contain one of the most vivid creation accounts in all of religious history and a representation of the eventual destruction of the world that is unique in its attention to detail.

In the Völuspá, Odin, the chief god of the Norse pantheon, has conjured up the spirit of a dead völva and commanded this spirit to reveal the past and the future. She is reluctant: "What do you ask of me? Why tempt me?"; but since she is already dead, she shows no fear of Odin, and continually taunts him: "Well, would you know more?" But Odin insists: if he is to fulfill his function as king of the gods, he must possess all knowledge. Once the völva has revealed the secrets of past and future, she falls back into oblivion: "I sink now".

The beginning
The Norns spin the threads of fate at the foot of Yggdrasil, the tree of the world.
The Norns spin the threads of fate at the foot of Yggdrasil, the tree of the world.

According to Norse myth, the beginning of life was fire and ice, with the existence of only two worlds: Muspelheim and Niflheim. When the warm air of Muspelheim hit the cold ice of Niflheim, the giant Ymir and the icy cow Audhumla were created. Ymir's foot bred a son and a man and a woman emerged from his armpits, making Ymir the progenitor of the Jotun, or giants. Whilst Ymir slept, the intense heat from Muspelheim made him sweat, and he sweated out Surtr, a giant of fire. Later Ymir woke and drank Audhumbla's milk. Whilst he drank, the cow Audhumbla licked on a salt stone. On the first day after this a man's hair appeared on the stone, on the second day a head and on the third day an entire man emerged from the stone. His name was Búri and with an unknown giantess he fathered Bor, the father of the three gods Odin, Vili and Ve.

When the gods felt strong enough they killed Ymir. His blood flooded the world and drowned all of the giants, except two. But giants grew again in numbers and soon there were as many as before Ymir's death. Then the gods created seven more worlds using Ymir's flesh for dirt, his blood for the Oceans, rivers and lakes, his bones for stone, his brain as the clouds, his skull for the heaven. Sparks from Muspelheim flew up and became stars.
Creation of Ask and Embla, on a Faroese stamp
Creation of Ask and Embla, on a Faroese stamp

One day when the gods were walking they found two tree trunks. They transformed them into the shape of humans. Odin gave them life, Vili gave them mind and Ve gave them the ability to hear, see, and speak. The gods named them Ask and Embla and built the kingdom of Middle-earth for them and to keep the giants out the gods placed a gigantic fence made of Ymir's eyelashes around Middle-earth.

The völva goes on to describe Yggdrasil and the three norns (female symbols of inexorable fate; their names - Urðr (Urd), Verðandandi (Verdandi), and Skuld - indicate the past, present, and obligatory actions to occur), who spin the threads of fate beneath it. She then describes the war between the Æsir and Vanir and the murder of Baldr, Odin's handsome son whom everyone but Loki loved. (The story is that everything in existence promised not to hurt him except mistletoe. Taking advantage of this weakness, Loki made a mistletoe spear and tricked Höðr, Odin's blind son and Baldr's brother, into using it to kill Baldr. Hel said she would revive him if everyone in the nine worlds wept. A giantess - Thokk, who may have been Loki in shape-shifted form - did not weep. After that she turns her attention to the future.

The end times (Eschatological beliefs)

Main article: Ragnarök

The Old Norse vision of the future is bleak. Norse mythology's vision of the end times is stark and pessimistic: not only are the Norse gods capable of being defeated by residents of Yggdrasil's other branches, but in fact are destined to be defeated, and have always lived with this knowledge. In the end, it was believed, the forces of chaos will outnumber and overcome the divine and human guardians of order. Loki and his monstrous children will burst their bonds; the dead will sail from Niflheim to attack the living. Heimdall, the watchman of the gods, will summon the heavenly host with a blast on his horn. Then a final battle will ensue between order and chaos (Ragnarök), which the gods will lose, as is their fate. The gods, aware of this, will gather the finest warriors, the Einherjar, to fight on their side when the day comes, but in the end they will be powerless to prevent the world from descending into the chaos out of which it has once emerged; the gods and their world will be destroyed. There are two optimistic facts, however: Not only will chaos also be defeated, but a new, better world will emerge from the ashes of the old one. Odin will be swallowed by Fenrir. Thor will kill Jörmungandr, but will drown in its venom. Loki will be the last to die, having taken a wound from Heimdall that, although was taken at the same time as Loki's wound on Heimdall, did not kill the god of chaos and fire in that instance.

And although the gods were destined to be defeated and killed, Baldr and Hodr, along with the new world, will be born again.

Kings and heroes

Main article: Legendary sagas

The Ramsund carving depicting passages from the Völsunga saga
The Ramsund carving depicting passages from the Völsunga saga

The mythological literature relates the legends of heroes and kings, as well as supernatural creatures. These clan and kingdom founding figures possessed great importance as illustrations of proper action or national origins. The heroic literature may have fulfilled the same function as the national epic in other European literatures, or it may have been more nearly related to tribal identity. Many of the legendary figures probably existed, and generations of Scandinavian scholars have tried to extract history from myth in the sagas.

Sometimes the same hero resurfaces in several forms depending on which part of the Germanic world the epics survived such as Weyland/Völund and Siegfried/Sigurd, and probably Beowulf/Bödvar Bjarki. Other notable heroes are Hagbard, Starkad, Ragnar Lodbrok, Sigurd Ring, Ivar Vidfamne and Harald Hildetand. Notable are also the shieldmaidens who were ordinary women who had chosen the path of the warrior. These women function both as heroines and as obstacles to the heroic journey.

Norse worship

Main articles: Norse paganism and Blót

Centres of faith
Gamla Uppsala, the centre of worship in Sweden until the temple was destroyed in the late 11th century.
Gamla Uppsala, the centre of worship in Sweden until the temple was destroyed in the late 11th century.

The Germanic tribes rarely or never had temples in a modern sense. The Blót, the form of worship practiced by the ancient Germanic and Scandinavian people, resembled that of the Celts and Balts. It occurred either in sacred groves, at home, or at a simple altar of piled stones known as a "horgr". However, there seem to have been a few more important centres, such as Skiringssal, Lejre and Uppsala. Adam of Bremen claims that there was a temple in Uppsala (see Temple at Uppsala) with three wooden statues of Thor, Odin, Idoki and Freyr.

Priests

While a kind of priesthood seems to have existed, it never took on the professional and semi-hereditary character of the Celtic druidical class. This was because the shamanistic tradition was maintained by women, the Völvas. It is often said that the Germanic kingship evolved out of a priestly office. This priestly role of the king was in line with the general role of godi, who was the head of a kindred group of families (for this social structure, see norse clans), and who administered the sacrifices[citation needed].

Despite the shamanistic Völvas, this religion was not a form of shamanism[1].

Human sacrifice

A unique eye-witness account of Germanic human sacrifice survives in Ibn Fadlan's account of a Rus ship burial, where a slave-girl had volunteered to accompany her lord to the next world. More indirect accounts are given by Tacitus, Saxo Grammaticus and Adam von Bremen.

However, the Ibn Fadlan account is actually a burial ritual. Current understanding of Norse mythology suggests an ulterior motive to the slave-girl's 'sacrifice'. It is believed that in Norse mythology a woman who joined the corpse of a man on the funeral pyre would be that man's wife in the next world. For a slave girl to become the wife of a lord was an obvious increase in status. Although both religions are of the Indo-European tradition, the sacrifice described in the Ibn Fadlan account is not to be confused with the practice of Sati.

The Heimskringla tells of Swedish King Aun who sacrificed nine of his sons in an effort to prolong his life until his subjects stopped him from killing his last son Egil. According to Adam of Bremen, the Swedish kings sacrificed male slaves every ninth year during the Yule sacrifices at the Temple at Uppsala. The Swedes had the right not only to elect kings but also to depose them, and both king Domalde and king Olof Trätälja are said to have been sacrificed after years of famine.

Odin was associated with death by hanging, and a possible practice of Odinic sacrifice by strangling has some archeological support in the existence of bodies such as Tollund Man that perfectly preserved by the acid of the Jutland peatbogs, into which they were cast after having been strangled. However, scholars possess no written accounts that explicitly interpret the cause of these stranglings, which could obviously have other explanations.

Interactions with Christianity
An 1830 portrayal of Ansgar, a Christian missionary invited to Sweden by its king Björn at Hauge in 829.
An 1830 portrayal of Ansgar, a Christian missionary invited to Sweden by its king Björn at Hauge in 829.

See also: Christianization of Scandinavia

An important note in interpreting this mythology is that often the closest accounts that scholars have to "pre-contact" times were written by Christians. The Younger Edda and the Heimskringla were written by Snorri Sturluson in the 13th century, over two hundred years after Iceland became Christianized. This results in Snorri's works carrying a large amount of Euhemerism[citation needed].

Virtually all of the saga literature came out of Iceland, a relatively small and remote island, and even in the climate of religious tolerance there, Snorri was guided by an essentially Christian viewpoint. The Heimskringla provides some interesting insights into this issue. Snorri introduces Odin as a mortal warlord in Asia who acquires magical powers, settles in Sweden, and becomes a demi-god following his death. Having undercut Odin's divinity, Snorri then provides the story of a pact of Swedish King Aun with Odin to prolong his life by sacrificing his sons. Later in the Heimskringla, Snorri records in detail how converts to Christianity such as Saint Olaf Haraldsson brutally converted Scandinavians to Christianity.
One gruesome form of execution occurred during the Christianization of Norway. King Olaf Tryggvason had male völvas (sejdmen) tied and left on a skerry at ebb. (1897 illustration by Halfdan Egedius)
One gruesome form of execution occurred during the Christianization of Norway. King Olaf Tryggvason had male völvas (sejdmen) tied and left on a skerry at ebb. (1897 illustration by Halfdan Egedius)

Trying to avert civil war, the Icelandic parliament voted in Christianity, but for some years tolerated heathenry in the privacy of one's home. Sweden, on the other hand, had a series of civil wars in the 11th century, which ended with the burning of the Temple at Uppsala.[citation needed] In England, Christianization occurred earlier and sporadically, rarely by force. Conversion by coercion was sporadic throughout the areas where Norse gods had been worshipped. However, the conversion did not happen overnight. Christian clergy did their utmost to teach the populace that the Norse gods were demons, but their success was limited and the gods never became evil in the popular mind in most of Scandinavia.

The length of time Christianization took is illustrated by two centrally located examples of Lovön and Bergen. Archaeological studies of graves at the Swedish island of Lovön have shown that the Christianisation took 150-200 years, and this was a location close to the kings and bishops. Likewise in the bustling trading town of Bergen, many runic inscriptions have been found from the 13th century, among the Bryggen inscriptions. One of them says may Thor receive you, may Odin own you, and a second one is a galdra which says I carve curing runes, I carve salvaging runes, once against the elves, twice against the trolls, thrice against the thurs. The second one also mentions the dangerous Valkyrie Skögul.

There are few accounts from the 14th to the 18th century, but the clergy, such as Olaus Magnus (1555) wrote about the difficulties of extinguishing the old beliefs. The story related in Þrymskviða appears to have been unusually resilient, like the romantic story of Hagbard and Signy, and versions of both were recorded in the 17th century and as late as the 19th century. In the 19th and early 20th century Swedish folklorists documented what commoners believed, and what surfaced were many surviving traditions of the gods of Norse mythology. However, the traditions were by then far from the cohesive system of Snorri's accounts. Most gods had been forgotten and only the hunting Odin and the giant-slaying Thor figure in numerous legends. Freyja is mentioned a few times and Baldr only survives in legends about place names.

Other elements of Norse mythology survived without being perceived as such, especially concerning supernatural beings in Scandinavian folklore. Moreover, the Norse belief in destiny has been very firm until modern times. Since the Christian hell resembled the abode of the dead in Norse mythology one of the names was borrowed from the old faith, Helvíti i.e. Hel's punishment. Many elements of the Yule traditions persevered, such as the Swedish tradition of slaughtering the pig at Christmas (Christmas ham), which originally was part of the sacrifice to Freyr.

Modern influences
Day (Old Norse) Meaning
Mánadagr Moon's day
Týsdagr Tyr's day
Óðinsdagr Odin's day
Þórsdagr Thor's day
Frjádagr Day of Freyr/Freyja
Laugardagr Washing day
Sunnudagr/Dróttinsdagr Sun's day/The Lord's day

The Germanic gods have left numerous traces in modern vocabulary and elements of every day western life in most Germanic language speaking countries. An example of this is some of the names of the days of the week: modelled after the names of the days of the week in Latin (named after Mars, Mercury, Jupiter, Venus, and Saturn), the names for Tuesday through to Friday were replaced with Germanic equivalents of the Roman gods and the names for Monday and Sunday after the Sun and Moon. In English, Saturn was not replaced, while Saturday is named after the sabbath in German[citation needed].

Viking revival

Main article: Viking revival

Early modern editions of Old Norse literature begins in the 16th century, e.g. Historia de gentibus septentrionalibus (Olaus Magnus, 1555) and the first edition of the 13th century Gesta Danorum (Saxo Grammaticus), in 1514. The pace of publication increased during the 17th century with Latin translations of the Edda (notably Peder Resen's Edda Islandorum of 1665). The renewed interest of Romanticism in the Old North had political implications. Myths about a glorious and brave past is said to have given the Swedes the courage to retake Finland, which had been lost in 1809 during the war between Sweden and Russia. The Geatish Society, of which Geijer was a member, popularized this myth to a great extent[citation needed].

A focus for early British enthusiasts was George Hicke, who published a Linguarum vett. septentrionalium thesaurus in 1703–5. In the 1780s, Denmark offered to cede Iceland to Britain in exchange for Crab Island (West Indies), and in the 1860s Iceland was considered as a compensation for British support of Denmark in the Slesvig-Holstein conflicts. During this time, British interest and enthusiasm for Iceland and Nordic culture grew dramatically.

Germanic neopaganism

Main article: Germanic neopaganism

Romanticist interest in the Old North gave rise to Germanic mysticism involving various schemes of occultist "Runology", notably following Guido von List and his Das Geheimnis der Runen (1908) in the early 20th century.

Since the 1970s, there have been revivals of the old Germanic religion as Germanic neopaganism (Ásatrú) in both Europe and the United States.

Modern popular culture

Main article: Norse mythology in popular culture

Norse mythology also influenced Richard Wagner's use of literary themes from it to compose the four operas that make up Der Ring des Nibelungen (The Ring of the Nibelung).

Subsequently, J. R. R. Tolkien's writings, especially The Silmarillion, were heavily influenced by the indigenous beliefs of the pre-Christian Northern Europeans. As the related Tolkien's novel The Lord of the Rings became popular, elements of its fantasy world moved steadily into popular perceptions of the fantasy genre. In many fantasy novels today can be found such Norse creatures as elves, dwarves, and frost giants, though this has back-fired with many viewing these creatures as clichés.[citation needed] Subsequently, Norse mythology has also greatly influenced popular culture, in literature and modern fiction. (See Marvel Comics' The Mighty Thor or Neil Gaiman's The Sandman (Vertigo))

In the Stargate SG-1 series on the Sci-Fi network, the characters run into a race of aliens called the Asgard. Thor, Loki, and a few other names are used to highlight the connection to Norse mythology.

The Japanese anime, Mythical Detective Loki Ragnarok has most of their characters and the story based on Norse mythology with Loki as the protagonist of the story. Thor, Heindall, Frey, Freya and the three norns and Loki's children appear in human or beast form. The main storyline is of Odin's wish to assassinate Loki in his child form on Earth before the day of Ragnarok so Loki doesn't lead the revolt of Asgard.

A video game for the Xbox 360, Too Human, being developed by Silicon Knights, is a futuristic view on Norse Mythology, where players play as Baldr.